【作者】 李竞艳；

【导师】 李振宏；

【作者基本信息】 河南大学 ， 中国古代史， 2011， 博士

【摘要】 晚明在中国古代历史的长河中是一个激荡变革的时代,士人作为知识的承载者和传承者,传统的“学而优则仕”的人生追求在此时期发生了明显分化,并由此导致士人阶层的群体划分。士人群体的分化根源于晚明社会的政治、经济、文化环境。政治方面,吏治混乱,政事废弛,人浮于事,卖官鬻爵,党派林立,对拥有“学而优则仕”理想的士人影响很大。经济方面,社会生产力提高,人身依附关系松弛,商品经济获得了较快发展,为士人选择新的生活道路提供了经济条件。文化方面,阳明心学之哲学思想、多元化之价值观念和僭越礼制之社会风尚的盛行,为士人群体的个性解放提供了文化理论上的支撑。士人群体在晚明特殊的大环境下分化成三个不同的子群体。坚守科举之路的士人群体。这部分士人虽然仍走传统的“学而优则仕”的科举之路,但在晚明科举考试道路日渐艰难和社会经济发展的环境下,他们在坚守仕进之路的同时,也肩负起生活的重担。其文化生活除了读书备考以外,更多地参与讲会和结社活动,互相切磋时文技艺,为早日科举成功长期奔波。其思想倾向复杂,既有过于追求科举成功的功利思想,也有为了克服科举考试内容和形式上的呆板而追求心学之主张。他们的人生道路,与前代士人相比,也有了明显的不同。放弃科举而坚守儒业的士人群体。这部分士人虽然放弃了科举和仕途之路,但仍以读书为其生活的主要内容,他们在整个士人群体中占据着大多数。在生活来源方面,他们或只能做不被人重视而且收入较低的蒙师,或靠为人写墓志铭或通俗读物等卖文活动而谋求生计,或因出色的文学才能而获取惜才之友的资助。在行为方式上,这批士人有更多的时间交游与结社、游山玩水等。他们同友人切磋文艺,而非科举士人们讨论的古板枯燥的时文技艺。在思想倾向方面,他们视读书、著述为乐,追求适意、丰富的生活内容,纯净世道人心,维护社会秩序,从而使生活内容更充实、更有意义,其个性解放意识表现突出。弃儒就贾之士人群体。这部分士人放弃儒业,走上经商之路,运用曾经拥有的知识在商场上驰骋。他们弃儒经商的原因很复杂,但根本原因则是晚明商品经济的长足发展对人才的客观需求。他们从商后仍坚持读书学习、与士人交往、参与宗族等地方事务。其思想上体现出儒家知识与经营谋利相结合的倾向。随着晚明士人群体的分化,士人的社会生活也日渐丰富,日常社会交往也变得更加宽泛。在与官员、商人、妓女等交往时,由于交往双方都拥有各自的优势,存在一定程度的互补,所以交往呈现出双向、相互的态势。而与社会普通百姓的交往,由于士人具有较大的社会话语权力,二者的交往呈现出单向性,即士人始终是主动性的一方。晚明士人无论是与官员、商人、妓女三者交往的双向性、互补性还是与普通百姓交往的单向性,都表现出了晚明特殊政治、经济环境下独有的特征,这些特征又反过来从不同的侧面反映了晚明社会的特殊性。晚明西学传入并对当时社会产生了重大影响。面对西学,士人群体针对其在华的传播途径和内容表现出了不同的态度:热衷和排拒。持热衷态度的士人对西学中的西方科学技术知识和重视逻辑推理的科学方法表现出了浓厚兴趣,同时肯定天主教教义深诋空疏学风的社会功能,认为天主教是补儒易佛、斥佛的良药。而持排拒态度的士人则认为,西学中的科学技术只不过是雕虫小技,不足予以重视,而最需要驳斥的则是天主教对当时政治和儒学的破坏作用。持这两种态度的士人在政治、伦理、哲学等方面针锋相对,但有一个共同的特点即都是针对晚明变革的社会环境,从维护社会稳定的大局着眼,体现了士人面对异质文化时的文化自觉意识。晚明出现新的社会风尚与士人群体不无关系。士人物欲、情欲观念的解放客观上推动了社会奢侈之风和纵欲之风的盛行。同时,士人对新的道德观念的认可,也冲击了传统的尊卑、长幼、男女等积习,士人的个性解放引领了新的社会风尚。晚明虽然是一个激荡变革的历史时期,但对这一时期社会变化的性质和程度则不宜过高估计,从基本的社会属性上说,封建社会之底色并没有改变,封建农业经济、君主专制、儒家思想等仍占据主导地位,传统仍是社会的主流和底色。与此相适应,士人群体中,不受物欲浸染,不被新学所动,思想和观念仍然置身于社会变革之外者,占据多数。研究晚明士人群体,不可因看到那些激烈变化的因素,而忽视其不变的基本面。晚明社会之所以既激情澎湃又传统保守,与士人群体分化而成的不同子群体持有的不同思想观念不无关系,正是这种新旧交织的两种社会力量的并存激荡,使晚明社会呈现出五光十色的缤纷之状;而也正是在新旧力量的对比中,旧的部分仍然占据主导地位,使得这个社会既呈现出新生的希望,而又崩而不溃、衰而不死。研究晚明士人群体,可以为认识晚明社会的复杂性提供一个历史分析的标本。更多还原

【Abstract】 The late Ming Dynasty was a stirring time of change in the course of history in ancient China. The intellectuals, as the bearer and continuator of knowledge, whose traditional goal of life---"Excellent Learning Becoming Officials" changed distinctively during this period, were accordingly classified into kinds of groups in the literati.The classification of the intellectual group was rooted in the late Ming Dynasty’s political, economic and cultural environment. Politically, the bureaucratic system was in disorder; the government affairs were neglected; all levels of governments were overstaffed; the official positions and ranks could be sold and bought; and there existed numerous political groupings, which had much impact on the intellectuals whose ideal was to pursue the high officials after excellent learning. Economically, the social productivity was enhanced; the relations of personal dependence were loosened; the commodity economy gained a rapid development, which provided the economic conditions for the intellectuals to choose a new life. Culturally, the philosophical thoughts of Yangming Mind Learning Theory, the multi-value concepts and the prevalence of overstepping the ritual practice in society provide a theoretical support in culture for the intellectual groups for their individual emancipation.The intellectual group, in the special background of the late Ming Dynasty, was differentiated into three different sub-groups.The first sub-group was the one sticking to the path of civil service examination. While still taking the traditional road of "good scholar official" civil service examination, they also shouldered the burdens of supporting their families---though the road to the officialdom was increasingly difficult, yet the socio-economic development advanced then. Apart from their preparation for the examination, they were more and more involved in the activities of lectures and speeches, and the associations. They mutually exchanged the writing skills of their essays for their early success of the examination. Their ideological orientations were complex. They had in mind both the utilitarian ideas of overemphasizing the examination success and the propositions of seeking the Mind Learning in order to overcome the rigid form and content of the examination. Their way of life, compared with the previous intellectuals made a difference.The second sub-group was the one abandoning the civil service examination and adhering to the Confucianism. Although the intellectuals gave up the examination and the officialdom, they still read the classical books to content themselves, and they occupied the overwhelming majority of the whole intellectual group. They earned a living by means of becoming a teacher in private schools, or by means of writing the epitaphs for others and writing the popular literature to sell, or by means of monetary support from their friends for their excellent literary competence. In behavior, these intellectuals had more time to make friends, attend to the associations, and have a sightseeing tour and so on. They demonstrated their literature and art with friends, rather than how to write the old-fashioned and boring essays for the civil service examination. In terms of ideology, they were contented with and reading and writing, pursued the satisfactory and rich life; and they wanted the society to be purified and in order so that the contents of life more full and more meaningful. The sense of their individual emancipation had taken shape.The third sub-group was the one that the intellectuals abandoned the Confucianism for business. The main reason why they went onto the road of business was that the commodity economy then had a rapid development and objectively needed the businessmen to undertake the commercial trade. But they still read books in their time, made friends with other intellectuals, and participated in their family clans’ local affairs. Their ideology had reflected a tendency of a combination of Confucian knowledge and business.With the classification in the late Ming Dynasty, the social life of the intellectuals was increasingly rich, and their daily social interactions became more active. The interaction with officials, businessmen, prostitutes, owing to their own respective advantages and their mutual complementariness, was a two-way exchange and a mutual situation. While the interaction with the ordinary people, owing to a big power of social discourse of the intellectuals, was a one-way communication and was always positive. The interactions manifested the characteristics in the special political and economic background in the late Ming Dynasty t in turn, reflects from a different side of the particularity of the late Ming dynasty, and the characteristics, in turn, reflected the particularity of the society from the different aspects during that time.The western civilization was introduced and had a significant influence on the society in the late Ming Dynasty. The attitudes of the intellectuals toward the transmission and the content of western civilization were varying--- enthusiastic and exclusive. Those who were enthusiastic showed great interest in the western science and technology, and in the scientific methods in logical reasoning. Meanwhile, they were aware of the social function of the Catholic doctrines, believing that the Catholicism could modify the Confucianism and change or even discriminate against the Buddhism. While those who were repulsive held that the science and technology of the western civilization was just nothing but a skill without much value, and it could be negligible. But what should be refuted, they thought, was the destructive effect of the Catholicism on the current politics and the Confucianism. The two groupings of the intellectuals had a fierce conflict in politics, ethics and philosophy, but their conflicts did not interfere in the social reform and reversely maintained the social stability, which reflected their self-cultural consciousness in face of the foreign culture. The emergence of new social trends in the late Ming Dynasty had much with the intellectual group. The emancipation of the intellectuals in materialistic concept and desire concept fermented the prevalence of social luxury and indulgence. Meantime, the intellectuals’admission to the new moral concepts also shocked the malign customs of the traditional practice of servants waiting on nobles, juniors respecting seniors and women following men. In a word, the intellectuals took a lead of the social vogue through their individual emancipation.Although the period of the late Ming Dynasty was one part of history full of drastic changes, but, for the nature and degree of social changes, we can not overestimate. As long as the basic social quality was concerned, the background of feudal society did not change, and the feudal agricultural economy, the sovereign autocracy and Confucianism were still dominant, and the tradition was still the mainstream and fundament of the society. Correspondingly, among the intellectual group, those who were not affected by the material desires or not inspired by the new western civilization, and regarded themselves as by-standers of the social reform in ideology and concept, were majority. Therefore, as we are making a research on the intellectual group, we should lay emphasis on the drastically changing factors as well as unchanging factors.The late Ming Dynasty showed such a phenomenon of both passion and reason and for tradition and conservativeness which had much more with the different ideological concepts which were owned by the sub-groups classified from the intellectual group. It was the co-existence of this interweaving of old and new social forces that made the society of late Ming Dynasty colorful. And in the contrast of forces of the old and the new, the old one was still dominant, making the society present new hope, while the society did not either disintegrate or collapse, either decline or die. Doing research on the intellectual group can provide us a specimens of history study to analyze and understand the complexity of the late Ming Dynasty.更多还原