明代中旨研究

【作者】 王晓明；

【导师】 萧正洪；

【作者基本信息】 陕西师范大学 ， 明清史， 2019， 硕士

【摘要】 明代的中旨,是指不经内阁票拟而直接自宫中下发付外实施的旨意。明代自正统时期以后,逐渐形成了诏令的起草、奏章的批答必由内阁的惯例。皇帝不经过内阁直接下发诏令、批答奏章的做法,既是对明代常规决策程序的违背,又助长了宦官权力,因此备受官僚群体的反对和批评。本文在考察、梳理明以前各代内诏、墨敕、内降的前提下,研究明代中旨出现的背景、原因及泛滥的过程,再以下发的原因和内容为依据对明代中旨进行分类讨论,并探讨了明代官僚群体反对中旨的深层次原因及效果,最后在此基础上考察中旨对明代政治的影响。目前学界尚未见到针对明代中旨的专门研究,仅在部分研究明代票拟制度、文书制度的专著、论文中对中旨现象有所提及。因此,本文拟对明代中旨及其相关问题进行详细研究,在厘清明代中旨下发的具体原因及内容的基础上,主要解决以下问题:明代中旨从一开始的极少见载于史册,到成化以后的日渐泛滥,其背后的原因是什么?明代官僚群体基于什么样的立场来反对中旨的下发?他们的反对取得了什么样的效果?明代中旨下发对明代政治发展与运行的影响究竟如何?首先,中旨在成化以前极少见诸史册,有关皇帝下发中旨的记载很少,也很少见群臣针对中旨的上疏谏言。这是由于明太祖在废相之后,建立了一套高度集权的政治体制,明初诸帝,太祖、成祖皆自操威柄,仁宗、宣宗时,内阁地位虽日益上升且开始获得票拟之权,但是此时内阁票拟并未成为一种制度性惯例。文书的起草、批答之权本就操持于皇帝之手,则何来中旨之称?直至英宗幼年即位,无力决断政事,朝政皆付内阁,票拟成为常态,才构成了中旨形成的条件。因此,成化以后中旨才开始大量出现于文献记载中。这一前后变化的关键在于内阁票拟制度的形成,使诏令、奏章皆付内阁票拟成为一种为朝臣乃至于皇帝本人所认可的制度或曰惯例。其次,明代的官僚群体之所以要对中旨进行批评,除了维护明王朝的长治久安这一显而易见的原因之外(因为中旨所行多为不合法令之事,这决定了其对于明王朝的统治是不利的),还立足于三个方面对皇帝下发中旨的做法进行反对,即道德、祖制以及最根本的官僚与宦官相互制衡的权力结构。但是,由于对专制皇权缺乏制度性约束,官僚群体对中旨的反对并未取得良好的成效,皇帝下发中旨的做法一直存在,直至明朝灭亡。最后,下发中旨是对内阁票拟制度的破坏。朝政交予内阁票拟后由皇帝裁决,有利于在保证皇帝决策的科学、合理。而中旨径发,则使内阁无从发挥辅弼职能。因此,中旨对明代政治的影响主要是消极的,具体表现为中旨下发越过了常规决策程序,使权力不受限制,为宦官擅权提供便利,同时破坏了正常的铨选制度,为小人大开倖门,还扰乱了正常的司法秩序,加重了国家的财政负担。更多还原

【Abstract】 Zhongzhi of the Ming Dynasty refers to the orders to pay directly from the palace without the approval of the cabinet.After the Zhengtong period,the drafting of the decree and the approval of the chapters must follow the cabinets practice.The fact that the emperor directly issued orders and approved the seals without going through the cabinet was not only a violation of the regular decision-making process of the Ming Dynasty,but also contributed to the power of the eunuch.Therefore,Zhongzhi was opposed and criticized by the bureaucratic group.This paper sorts out the similar situations of the previous generations in the Ming Dynasty,studies the background,causes and flooding process of the Ming Dynasty’s Zhongzhi.Based on the reasons and contents of Zhongzhi,it classifies the Ming Dynasty’s Zhongzhi,discusses the deep-rooted reasons and effects of the Ming Dynasty’s bureaucratic group’s opposition to Zhongzhi.Finally,it observes the influence of Zhongzhi on the Ming Dynasty politics.There is currently no special research in the academic circles for Zhongzhi of the Ming Dynasty.It is only mentioned in the papers on the study of Piaoni,the document system of the Ming Dynasty.Therefore,this thesis intends to conduct a detailed study of the Ming Dynasty’s Zhongzhi and related issues.On the basis of clarifying the specific reasons and contents of Zhongzhi,it mainly solves the following problems:Why Zhongzhi was rarely seen rare in the early Ming Dynasty and began to flood after Ming Chenghua period?Based on what position did the bureaucratic group of the Ming Dynasty oppose Zhongzhi?What effect did their opposition have?What was the impact of Zhongzhi of the political development and operation of the Ming Dynasty?First of all,Zhongzhi was rarely seen in the annals before the Chenghua period.There are few records about the emperor’s decree,and it is rare to see the ministers’slogans on Zhongzhi.This is because after the abolition of the prime minister,Ming Taizu established a highly centralized political system.In the early Ming Dynasty,the emperors,Taizu and Chengzu mastered the power.In the Hongxi and Xuande period,although the status of the cabinet was rising and it began to obtain the right to Piaoni,but at this time Piaoni did not become a routine.The drafting of the document,the approval of the book was in the hands of the emperor.Until the Zhengtong period,the emperor was too young to determine the political affairs.So Piaoni gradually became a norm,which constituted the conditions for the formation of Zhongzhi.Therefore,after the Chenghua period,Zhongzhi began to appear in a large number of documents.The key to this change is the formation of the Piaoni system,so that the order and the chapters are handed over to the cabinet became a routine that is recognized by the courtiers and even the emperor himself.Secondly,the reason why the bureaucratic group of the Ming Dynasty wanted to criticize Zhongzhi was not only to maintain the long-term stability of the Ming Dynasty(because most Zhongzhi were illegal,which determined it was unfavorable to the rule of the Ming Dynasty).It also based on three aspects to oppose the emperor’s practice of issuing Zhongzhi of morality,ancestral system and the most fundamental power structure of bureaucrats and eunuchs.Finally,Zhongzhi undermines the Piaoni system.Piaoni is helpful to ensure that the emperor’s decision-making is scientific and reasonable.However,Zhongzhi nade it impossible for the cabinet to play its auxiliary role.Therefore,the influence of Zhongzhi on Ming Dynasty’s politics was mainly negative.Zhongzhi went beyond the routine decision-making procedure,made power unrestricted,facilitated eunuchs’unauthorized power,destroyed the normal election system,disrupted the normal judicial order and increased the financial burden of the country.更多还原