【作者】 王伟；

【导师】 刘陆鹏；

【作者基本信息】 山东大学 ， 马克思主义哲学， 2022， 博士

【摘要】 自然概念是马克思主义哲学中最为重要的基石之一,自从施密特的著作《马克思的自然概念》发表以来,与马克思自然概念相关的诸多争论一直持续不断,在生态环境日益恶化的今天,这一概念有理由受到人们的关注。本文因环境问题及其争论而起,却无意介入环境哲学的论争,而是对马克思自然概念的文本研究,以期在拓宽马克思自然概念的实践根基的同时,也为这些争论提供学理基础。本文拟通过考察并分析马克思主要论著中与自然相关的阐释,梳理自然概念在马克思那里的形成,以确定它的基本内涵、丰富发展过程,进而把握它的独特性,即使它异质于其他自然概念的东西。马克思对自然的最早关注始于其中学时代的毕业论文,但彼时的自然并没有任何实体性的内容,而只是作为神的类比物被提到。此后,处于理想主义影响下的马克思也曾把目光短暂地投向遥远的未知的自然,但这种自然因其对人间疾苦的“漠不关心”而使马克思颇有微词。在意识到理想主义下灵魂与肉体、精神与自然的分裂后,马克思开始转向现实,主张精神与自然统一的黑格尔哲学遂取代理想主义而被安置进马克思的思想背景中。但是,马克思很快意识到,在黑格尔那里,自然也只是思想的创造物,只具有应该被扬弃的外在性意义而不具有现实性。凭借费尔巴哈对黑格尔自然概念之神学性质的批判和对思维与存在关系的颠倒,自然从作为注释的东西一跃而成为“存在的本质”。马克思充分肯定费尔巴哈的贡献,却不满于他只是从客体的角度看待自然而缺失了主体视角。当然,对于那种被唯心主义片面发展了的主体方面,马克思也同样一方面保留一方面给予了严厉批评。在此基础上,马克思提出,要从实践的角度去理解自然,实践因此既包含着客体的维度,也包含着主体的维度,是客体与主体的统一。从反的方面说,从实践的角度去理解自然,就意味着自然不再是自在的、与人无关的抽象自然。自在的、与人无关的自然是马克思对黑格尔自然概念之外在性的批评,用于评价费尔巴哈的自然概念同样适用,因为抽象的唯物主义与唯心主义殊途同归。与人无关性,是对他们二人自然概念的共同概括。从正的方面说,从实践的角度理解自然,就意味着把自然纳入实践的范围,结束了自然与精神、自然与人对立的历史,而代之以二者的辩证统一,并在历史的进程中不断变换这种统一的形态,不同于其他自然概念的马克思的自然概念形成了。显而易见,实践是这一概念形成过程中的根本性因素,实践性是其最根本特征。在马克思自然概念的形成过程中,有两种自然分别以不同的方式进入马克思的视野。一种是因理想主义影响而首先走入马克思视野的那个遥远的未知事物,一种是因被纳入实践范围而成为马克思关注重心的“人化的自然界”。在本文中,前者被称为自在自然,后者被称为人化自然,这两种自然都是客观存在的,只不过自在自然的优先性已不是纯粹自然发生意义上的优先性,而是作为满足人的自然需要而进行的物质生产实践的优先性,是一种基础性。自在自然作为实践的前提潜在地对人存在着,既为人的活动提供潜在的物质条件,也为人的活动提供可能的空间。自在自然因此与人间接地关联起来,从而与马克思曾关注过的那个与人无关的遥远的自然有了异质性,这个首先进入马克思视野的自在自然以变化了的内容而成为马克思自然概念的组成部分。由于自在自然只是以一种潜在的形式对人存在着,而不能对人及其活动发生直接的作用,马克思并没有对它进行专门研究,它在马克思的自然概念中仅居于次要地位,居于其核心地位的是人化自然。不同于自在自然,马克思明确使用过“人化的自然界”这一词汇。在探讨人的感觉的原因时,马克思写道:“人的感觉,感觉的人性,都是由于它的对象的存在,由于人化的自然界,才产生出来的。”①这句话释放出两个方面的信息。第一,人的感觉的对象和人化自然处于并列地位,二者都是人的感觉的原因。一方面是人化自然作为人的感觉的原因,另一方面是人化自然作为与人的感觉的对象并列的地位,这两个方面都表明,人化自然是客观存在的,客观性是马克思赋予人化自然的首要特征。第二,对于“人化的”一词,马克思是以黑体加粗的形式予以强调的,从而凸显出了人化自然的实践性质。“人化”作为动词,突出“化”字的动词性质,表明人化自然是人作用于自然的过程;“人化的”作为形容词,突出人“化”自然这一动作的结果。这表明,人化自然既是人的活动的产物,也是人的活动进一步展开的过程,实践性是它的根本特征。实践作为能动与受动的统一,包含着从主体方面理解自然和从客体方面理解自然的双重视角,这就衍生出人化自然的第三个特征——双向性。它既指人在“化”自然的过程中与自然的相互作用,也指这一“化”自然的行为结束时得到的结果是双重的,不仅包括自然因人的作用而发生的改变,还包括人因自然的影响而发生的变化。这一点,用马克思的话说,即当人“作用于他身外的自然并改变自然时,也就同时改变他自身的自然”②。客观性、实践性、双向性构成马克思人化自然概念的三重特征。其中,客观性是其首要特征,实践性是其根本特征,双向性是其显著特征。由于人化自然在马克思自然概念中的核心地位,实践性又被提升为马克思自然概念的根本特征。在人化自然的三重特征中,双向性特征逻辑地包含着“人的自然化”的内容。“人的自然化”一词虽然并不是由马克思提出的,马克思的思想中却包含着这方面的丰富内容。因其言说对象的不同,“人的自然化”又被赋予两种不同的含义,即以“自然的人化”为言说对象的“人的自然化”和以“异化的人”为言说背景的“人的自然化”。本文把前者称为“人的自然化I”,把后者称为“人的自然化Ⅱ”。其中,“人的自然化Ⅱ”使马克思自然概念获得了更为丰富的含义,这是一种指向人的本然状态的自然概念。在这两种“人的自然化”中,“人的自然化Ⅰ”呈现出积极和消极两种不同结果,积极的方面在于它带来人与自然关系的和谐,消极的方面则在于它可能导致人与自然关系的紧张。至于这两种结果中哪一方面最终得到呈现或居于主要方面,关键取决于人“化”自然的方式和程度。人类实践的任务就在于促成积极的方面,避免消极的方面。虽然在马克思的自然概念中,自在自然和人化自然分别居于不同地位,但它们并非互相排斥、非此即彼的,而是相辅相成、缺一不可的,它们共同构成马克思自然概念的基本内涵。自在自然尽管随着实践的发展而逐渐缩小,却并不会完全消失而成为无,只有这样,人化自然才有“化”的对象和空间;人化自然虽然随着工业和发明而不断扩大,却也不能完全取代自在自然而成为“1”,否则,人化自然便因无所依附而停止。而马克思早就说过,这种活动一旦停止,整个世界以及人类自身也会不存在了。在马克思自然概念后来的发展中,涌现出了不少使其更具鲜明性、更有时代感和现实感的内容,这些内容在促使自然概念在马克思理论中发挥更积极作用的同时,也为桥架起马克思自然概念与当代世界提供了更丰富的维度。作为马克思理论的重要组成部分,马克思自然概念受到研究者的持续关注,并遭遇了各种境遇,或批评或肯定,或反对或支持,或谴责或辩护……在诸多各异的声音中,有些显然已经触及马克思理论的根本。对于这些关于马克思自然概念的不同言说,不能消极对待置之不理,而是需要认真分析并予以积极回应。是故,除导论外,本文共分四个章节展开论述,从内涵、形成过程、丰富发展、理论境遇等方面阐释马克思的自然概念,分别回答马克思自然概念“是什么”“从何处来”“向何处去”等问题,在挖掘马克思自然概念本真含义的同时,彰显其时代价值。更多还原

【Abstract】 The concept of nature is one of the most crucial foundations of Marxist theoretical system and many important concepts related by Marx are related to it.It is also one of the most disputable concepts in Marxist Philosophy,and many evaluations on Marx and his theories are from it.Since Alfred Schmidt published his famous Marx ’s Concept of Nature,the debate on this issue has lasted up to now.This concept is attracting more and more attentions also partly due to the recent deteriorating environmental conditions.This paper is motivated by environmental issues,but has no intention to directly intervene in the debates on environmental philosophy,but attempts to interpret Marx’s concept of nature,basing on the context of his works.It aims to broaden the practical basis of Marx’s concept of nature and provides a solid theoretical foundation for it.It tries to interpret the concept of nature in the context of Marx’s classic works according to the logic of the development of Marx’s thought.It will define the basic meaning of Marx’s concept of nature,briefly understand its process of enrichment and development.Marx’s first focus on nature began in his high school graduation thesis.But nature at that time did not have any physical content,but was only mentioned as an analogy of God.Later,under the influence of idealism,Marx has briefly turned his attention to the distant and unknown nature,while he was not satisfied with its "indifference" to human sufferings.After realizing the split between soul and body,spirit and nature under idealism,Marx began to turn to reality,and Hegel’s philosophy,which advocated the unity of spirit and nature entered into Marx,instead of idealism.However,Marx soon realized that in Hegel,nature was also only a creation of thought and had only an external meaning that should be abandoned without reality.With the help of Feuerbach’s critique of Hegel’s concept of nature and his reversal of the relation between thought and existence,nature leaps from being something exegetical to becoming the "essence of being".Marx fully recognized Feuerbach’s contribution to materialism,but was dissatisfied with the latter’s understanding of nature only from the perspective of the object and the absence of the subject.In Theses on Feuerbach,Marx wrote,"The main defect of all hitherto-existing materialism-that of Feuerbach included-is that the Object,actuality,sensuousness,are conceived only in the form of the object,or of contemplation,but not as sensuous human activity,practice,not subjectively." Of course,Marx also reserved and severely criticized the dynamic aspects,which was abstractly developed by idealism.On this basis,Marx proposed to understand nature from the perspective of practice,which thus contains both the dimension of object and subject,the unity of object and subject.On the contrary,understanding nature from the perspective of practice means that nature is no longer a self-contained,human-independent abstract.Marx points that nature fixed in isolation from man is nothing.Obviously,it is the critique of Hegel’s concept of nature which is also applicable to the evaluation of Feuerbach’s concept of nature,since abstract materialism and idealism go in the same direction.On the positive side,understanding nature from the perspective of practice means that nature is included in the scope of practice.As a result,nature and human are then closely linked by practice as an intermediary,ending the history of the opposition between nature and spirit,nature and man,and opening up the dialectical unity of nature and history,and the unity of man and nature changes with the slow or fast development of industry,Thus far,Marx’s concept of nature distinguishing from others has formed.It is obvious that practice is the fundamental factor in the formation of Marx’s concept of nature,and practice is the most distinctive feature of Marx’s concept of nature.In the process of forming Marx’s concept of nature,two different kinds of nature come into Marx in different ways.One is the distant unknown nature,and the other is the humanized nature.Both of them exist objectively,while the former is firstly noticed by Marx due to the influence of idealism which is called nature itself,and the latter attracts more attention because it was included in the scope of practice.It is true that Marx never denied the objectivity and priority of nature itself,but the priority is not in the sense of purely natural occurrence,but in the sense of the practice of material production as the satisfaction of man’s physiological needs.As the premise of practice,nature itself exists potentially for human being and provides both the potential material conditions and the space of possibility for human activity.Nature itself is thus indirectly associated with human beings and thus has a heterogeneity with the distant nature that Marx had been concerned with,the nature itself that first entered Marx’s vision and became part of Marx’s concept of nature with a changed content.Since nature itself exists only in a potential form for man,but cannot have a direct effect on man and his activities,Marx did not study it specifically,and it only plays a secondary role in Marx’s concept of nature.Unlike nature itself,Marx used the term"humanized nature" explicitly.In Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,when he exploring the causes of human sense,Marx wrote," For not only the five senses but also the so-called mental senses,the practical sense(will,love,etc.),in a word,human sense,the human nature of the senses,comes to be by virtue of its object,by virtue of humanized nature." This is the first presentation of "humanized nature",which releases two important aspects.First,both humanized nature and objects are regarded as the causes of the forming of human sense.Such facts confirms that humanized nature exists objectively.In other words,objectivity is the primary feature of humanized nature.Second,Marx italicized the word "humanized" to highlight the practical nature of humanized nature.Humanized nature is not only the result of practice but also the reason of further development to human practice and practice is the fundamental feature of humanized nature.Practice,as the unity of active and passive,includes the dual perspective of understanding nature from the subjective sides and from objective sides,which gives rise to the third characteristic of humanized nature,which is the two-way feature.It means that the result of humanized nature is twofold,one is the change of nature and the other is the change of human.The former is by virtue of human and suitable for human beings while the later is by virtue of nature and suitable for the law of nature.On this point,Marx made a similar statement in his discussion of the labor process.He pointed out that human and nature change at the same time when he acts on nature.Marx analyses the connotations of humanized nature after putting forward it.According to him,humanized nature is "the genesis of human society "and "man’s real nature".Objectivity,practicality and the bi-directional characteristics are the two-way feature of Marx’s concept of humanized nature.Among them,objectivity is primary,practicability is fundamental,and the two-way feature is important.Because of the centrality of humanized nature,the practicality in turn constitutes the fundamental feature of Marx’s concept of nature.The two-way character of the naturalization of man logically includes the content of the"naturalization of man".Although the term "naturalization of man" was not proposed by Marx,Marx’s thought contains a wealth of ideas in this regard,and gives two different meanings to"naturalization of man" depending on the object of its context.One is the "naturalization of man" as opposed to the "humanization of nature",that is,the "naturalization of man Ⅰ".Another is the "naturalization of man" as opposed to the "alienated man",that is,the"naturalization of man Ⅱ".Among them,the "naturalization of man Ⅰ" presents two different results.The positive side is to bring harmony to the relationship between man and nature,while the negative side is to cause tension between man and nature.As to which of these two outcomes is finally presented or dominates,it depends on the way and the extent to which man "naturalizes" nature.Although in Marx’s concept of nature,humanized nature and nature itself occupy different positions.They are both parts of Marx’s concept of nature and together constitute the complete connotation of Marx’s concept of nature.When it comes to the relationship between them,the former is the foundation of the latter while the latter is the aim of the former.Both of them perfectly complement each other and neither can do without the other.Although nature itself shrinks with the development of practice,it does not completely disappear and becomes nothing,only in this way does humanized nature have the object and space to be"transformed".Although humanized nature expends with the development of industry and invention,it can’t completely replace nature itself and become the whole.The humanized nature not only confirm human’s essential powers but also positively proves the priority of nature itself.In the subsequent development of Marx’s concept of nature,a number of elements emerged that made Marx’s concept of nature more distinctive,contemporary and realistic,which,while contributing to a more active role of the concept of nature in Marx’s theory,also provided richer dimensions for bridging Marx’s concept of nature with the contemporary world.As an important part of Marx’s theories,Marx’s concept of nature has received sustained attention from researchers and has suffered from different situations,either criticized or affirmed,opposed or supported,condemned or defended and so on.Among these different voices,some have clearly touched on the very essence of Marx’s theory,and therefore these statements about Marx’s concept of nature need to be analysed carefully and responded to positively.In addition to the Introduction,this thesis is divided into four chapters,covering the connotation,formation process,its development,and situation of Marx’s concept of nature,answering the questions of what Marx’s concept of nature is,where it came from,and where it is going to.In the meantime,it shows the value of the times while exploring the true meaning of Marx’s concept of nature.更多还原