【作者】 罗茜（Ni Kadek Erosi Undaharta）；

【导师】 Alison K.S.Wee；

【作者基本信息】 广西大学 ， 生态学， 2021， 博士

【摘要】 圣林在保护物种多样性及古树方面具有重要作用,同时也有助于保护文化遗产。圣林通常由当地社区管理,传统上不受政府的任何干预。然而,目前针对全球各种形式圣林的生态、管理和可持续性尚缺乏研究。龙脑香科树种Dipterocarpus hasseltii是该科唯一具宗教文化价值,受印度尼西亚巴厘岛圣林保护的濒危物种。由于D.hasseltii经济价值较高,其遭受非法采伐的影响而导致栖息地破坏严重。本研究评估并比较了龙脑香树种D.hasseltii的森林生态学特征、遗传多样性水平和保护管理策略,这将有助于更好地管理和保护巴厘岛以及世界各地的圣林的生物多样性和濒危物种。评估圣林的森林生态学特征对于了解D.hasseltii的种群动态,进而为实现对其保护至关重要。第二章通过对3个物种组成水平（所有植物物种、仅D.hasseltii和D.hasseltii以外的物种）分析了圣林的物种丰富度、多样性、总干面积和植物区系,并与临近的保护区进行比较。结果发现D.hasseltii圣林的物种多样性和物种丰富度与保护区之间无显著差异,但圣林的所有植物物种组成和D.hasseltii物种组成的总干面积比保护区森林更大。同样,与保护区森林相比,圣林中D.hasseltii物种的幼苗、幼树和成年树更多。圣林比保护区森林有相似的物种多样性水平,因此本研究显示圣林对物种保护具有重要作用,尤其是对于像D.hasseltii的濒危物种。孤立种群的遗传多样性和结构对于指导保护管理和决策很重要。第三章对巴厘岛D.hasseltii种群的遗传多样性水平和遗传结构进行评估,以便为该物种在其源生地、小型、孤立种群的保护和恢复提供科学依据。本研究利用RADseq次代测序获得SNP标记,以评估巴厘岛圣林和保护区内8个种群的106个D.hasseltii个体的种群遗传学特征。结果显示,观测杂合度（Ho）估计为0.123至0.189,而期望杂合度（He）估计为0.061至0.167。遗传多样性较低可能是由于小种群种群内近亲繁殖造成的。近交系数F_IS值为负值的3个种群（Banjar Sayan,Mount Merbuk,Yeh Buah）偏离Hardy-Weinberg平衡且杂合度过高,而在其他五个种群中发现相反的结果。在D.hasseltii中没有明显的遗传侵蚀。种群间的遗传分化程度很高,成对群体分化指数Fst的最高值估计为0.169。因此,所有D.hasseltii需受到积极的保护。孤立种群的存在及其遗传分化是考虑优先保护巴厘岛D.hasseltii的主要原因。第四章探索巴厘岛D.hasseltii圣林保护的最佳保护方案,在此提出5项政策,以将濒危树种的保护管理与文化保护结合起来,包括（1）基于生物多样性保护价值进行优先排序;（2）明确地管理和确定合法所有权;（3）重申年轻一代的传统价值观;（4）繁殖和重新引入受威胁的树种;（5）评估森林管理战略的社会经济影响。圣林的可持续长期管理将加强其在生物多样性保护中的地位,并成为人类尊重自然的象征。总之,几个世纪以来,圣林是当地社区以传统管理方式保护受威胁物种的缩影。由于在此之前有关圣林传统管理的学术研究较为缺乏,因此本研究结果将对巴厘岛的圣林保护具有较高的价值。具体而言,这项工作为圣林作为天然林的保护价值提供了明确的证据,尽管当地保护圣林的规则和禁忌因现代化而迅速消失。强调圣林保护的重要性可以鼓励这种传统做法的连续性,进而促进圣林在就地生物多样性保护中的关键作用。最终,这项研究的结果有望对圣林的可持续性、政策和管理产生积极影响,也可为因为自然环境开发而导致种群退化的木材物种保护提供科学依据.更多还原

【Abstract】 Sacred groves are small forest patches that have an important role in protecting biodiversity,endangered species and old-growth trees,while also contributing to the preservation of cultural heritage.Sacred groves are usually managed by the local community traditionally without any interference from the government.However,there is a lack of crucial knowledge on the ecology,management and sustainability of the various forms of sacred groves present globally.In this thesis,I evaluated and compared the forest ecology,genetic diversity and conservation management of Dipterocarpus hasseltii,an endangered species found in sacred groves and protected forests in Bali,Indonesia.The highly valuable timber species D.hasseltii is severely threatened by habitat loss and illegal logging.The general objective was to increase our understanding of the ecological and evolutionary value of D.hasseltii,which will ultimately help to better manage and protect the biodiversity and endangered species of sacred forests in Bali and around the world.Assessing the characteristic of forest ecology in sacred groves is crucial to understand the population dynamics,vulnerability and conservation value of D.hasseltii in sacred groves.In Chapter 2,I analyzed the species richness,species diversity,basal area and floristic diversity of sacred groves containing D.hasseltii at three biodiversity levels—for all plant species,for only D.hasseltii and for species other than D.hasseltii—and compared them to protected forests.I found that Shannon’s species diversity and species richness was not significantly different between sacred groves and protected forests.However,the basal area for all plant species and only D.hasseltii trees in sacred groves was greater than in protected forest.Similarly,the seedling,sapling and adult trees of D.hasseltii species were greater abundance in sacred groves as compared to protected forest.Sacred groves have a similar level of diversity when compared to a protected forest,hence I conclude that sacred groves play an essential function as a place to protect biodiversity,especially D.hasseltii,and become a means of conservation of endangered species.The genetic diversity and structure of small and isolated populations is important to guide conservation management and decisions.In Chapter 3,I evaluated the level of genetic diversity and genetic structure among the D.hasseltii populations in Bali,in order to inform the conservation and restoration of this species in its natural,small,isolated populations.Restriction site-Associated DNA sequencing（RADseq）was used to obtain SNP markers to assess the population genetics of 106 D.hasseltii individuals from eight populations in both sacred groves and protected forests across Bali.The findings showed slight low to moderate genetic diversity with observed heterozygosity（H_o）estimated at 0.123 to 0.189 while expected heterozygosity（H_e）was estimated at 0.061 to 0.167.The slight low genetic diversity could be a consequence of inbreeding within small and isolated populations.Negative inbreeding coefficient(F_IS)value showed three populations（Banjar Sayan,Mount Merbuk,Yeh Buah）indicated deviation from the Hardy-Weindberg equilibrium and an excessive heterozygosity,while the opposite was found in the other five populations（Batu Agung,Dalam Sawah,National Park,Sangeh,Yeh Embang）.No genetic erosion was apparent in D.hasseltii.Genetic differentiation among populations was high and the highest value of pairwise genetic differentiation(F_st)was estimated at 0.169.Therefore,all D.hasseltii should be preserved.The presence of isolated populations that are genetically differentiated are the main reasons to consider the conservation of D.hasseltii in Bali as a priority.In Chapter 4,I explored the best practice for D.hasseltii sacred grove conservation in Bali.I proposed to combine conservation management of endangered tree species with cultural protection through five policy recommendations,including（1）prioritization based on biodiversity conservation value,（2）clear stewardship and legal ownership,（3）reaffirm traditional values in younger generation,（4）propagate and reintroduce threatened tree species and（5）evaluate the socioeconomic impacts of forest management strategies.Sustainable long-term management of sacred groves would reinforce their position in biodiversity conservation and as an icon of humanity’s respect for nature.In summary,sacred groves conserved threatened species through the traditional management by local community for centuries.The findings of this thesis are highly valuable to the conservation of sacred groves in Bali,as information on the existence of and insights from traditionally-managed sacred forests have not been academically reported before.Specifically,this work brought clear evidence of the conservation value of sacred groves as natural forests,even though the local rules and taboos that protect the sacred groves are rapidly disappearing due to modernization.Highlighting the conservation importance of sacred groves could encourage the continuity of such traditional practices and in turn,facilitate sacred grove’s crucial role in in situ biodiversity conservation.Eventually,the findings of this study are expected to have a positive impact on the sustainability,policy and management of sacred groves,and in general,of timber species that are facing exploitation and degradation in natural habitats worldwide.更多还原