【作者】 张强；

【导师】 刘秋根；

【作者基本信息】 河北大学 ， 中国史， 2016， 博士

【摘要】 清代民国时期黔东南“林农兼作”包含两层含义:一是指清代民国时期清水江流域以林业为主、农业为辅的两种经济生活方式,其中林业经济主要指杉木、茶油等林作物的种植、伐卖,以及以此为核心而形成的其他经济形态,农业经济则指传统的农业生产,林业和农业相互依赖、互相补充;二是指林间套种,谚语中又叫“林粮(农)间作”,主要是指在杉木、油茶等林木间,套种玉米、小麦等农作物。关于林间套种时序,林木种植前,存在先种植农作物一至二年的现象,但更普遍的是林木定植后、成林郁闭前,在其间隙处套种农作物,林农同时进行;至于套种作物,林主要有杉木、油茶、油桐等,农主要有玉米、小麦及果菜等,至于具体搭配,各地有所差异。黔东南“林农兼作”的兴起不是偶然,与其独特的自然与社会环境联系紧密。其独特的地质地貌、土壤、气候及水流条件,于杉木、马尾松等林作物而言,可谓得天独厚,特别于杉木,独特的自然条件使其材质明显优于外省;黔东南是苗侗民族集中区,为南蛮、古越人后裔,他们在先秦时期便发明了杉木萌芽更新和插条技术,为人工林的繁荣奠定了技术基础。加之林区山多田少,在经营农田时亦兼顾山林经营,甚至在农田四周,农田内部都兼种有林木。据《姜氏家谱》记载,至元代锦屏文斗寨依然林海莽莽,密布着茂盛的原始林,明代正德年间开始,由于宫苑建设黔东南优质原始林开始为世人知晓;清代皇木采办成为定例,明清皇木采办还带来了黔东南林区木材贸易的繁荣,繁荣的木材贸易让各地木商、手工艺人、农民等人群蜂拥而至,林区天然林砍伐殆尽。为解决皇木定例及市场对木材的需要,黔东南开始大规模人工造林,特别是乾隆朝,政府亦意识到人工造林的重要性,要求并鼓励林区人工育林。黔东南以农业为主的经济生活方式,逐步向以林业为主、农业为辅的经济生活方式转变。不过,杉木人工林生长周期长,如何解决外来移民及本土林农的生活问题,是亟待解决的问题。在长期造林实践中,林农发现林间套种既可以获得粮油,克服林业收益迟的困难,还可以保护幼苗,以耕代抚,有利于林木的成长,从而降低造林成本,林间套种在黔东南悄然兴起。通过契约文书和方志资料可知,黔东南林区杉木栽种主要使用了实生苗和萌芽更新技术。不过杉木等针叶树种会分泌出一种芳香的化学物质,一般树种都害怕这种物质,只有少数阔叶树种能够抵抗。因此,契约中与杉木混交的油茶、油桐等树种,既与杉木构成“仿生”以防病虫害,又有抗杉木化感作用的意蕴。当然它们在客观上确实能够增加林农的经济收入,但增加经济收益不能作为这种混交的直接原因。文书和方志中都有杉木成林时间的记载,一般在18-20年之间,但在林间套种过程中,部分林农可能将精力全部放在了农事上而忽略了林业经营,山主为确保山场收益在出佃山场时便想方设法确保林木的成林时间,最短为2年、最长8年,不过以3-5年为常态,为确保林农能够如期抚育林木成林,山主出佃山场时往往会增设一些附加条款。通过契约进一步可知,黔东南山林经营过程中,无论山主抑或栽手,都十分注重连片经营,从而实现规模效应。在“林农兼作”中,山主经营山场的形式分为山主出佃山场与林农栽种、山主出佃山场与林农种粟后栽杉、山主出佃嫩木、山主佃种自己与他人的共山、山主亲自栽种自己的山场等几种形式,“股”确定了山主对山场的占有,而且山场可以继承、买卖,由此可知黔东南山场属于家庭私有,而非家族公有,在山场流转过程中,黔东南山场逐渐兼并,最终集中在少数人手中。黔东南山多田少,但农业依然是林业经济的重要补充之一,田土经历着租佃、典当、断卖等流变形式,最终集中在大地主手中。值得一提的是林农,学界的主流观点是“来人”与世居林农的地位存在极大的差异,即来人地位远低于世居林农,不过通过契约文书可知,来人地位与世居林农并无差异,无论是居住、佃山条件,还是分成比例,都与世居林农相近。在主佃关系中,林农不仅独自承担林木栽种、成林的任务,即使林木郁闭后,林农依然独自承担林木的抚育、间伐、防火和安保工作。在“林农兼作”下,山主和林农可以通过山场、林木、山林断卖,出让山、林权利来实现山林收益,土栽按契分成。在分成比例上,以道光为分界线,自道光开始,3:2的土栽分成比例占据了绝对优势。栽手间、山主间亦按股份利。山主、地主及农民还有其他获利途径,如山主、田主通过放贷,农民则通过充当林木砍伐工人和运输中的旱伕排伕等角色获得相应收益。更多还原

【Abstract】 From the perspective of the history of forestry, agroforestry is one of the most important forms of complex agricultural forestry. Since the middle of the nineteenth Century, agroforestry has been seen around the world. Compared with the rest of the world, agroforestry in China has a longer history. Even in the early period of Ming to pre-Qing dynasties, agroforestry was very common in the Qingshuijiang River Basin in Southeast Guizhou of China(Hereafter called Qiandongnan). In the context of period of time between from Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China, agroforestry, as a term, contains two meanings: one refers to the two kinds of economic life styles which include forestry economy and agricultural economy; the other refers to Forest Intercropping. Forestry economy mainly refers to commercialization of planting forest crops, such as Chinese fir forest, Camellia oil crops, as well as other economic systems attached to it. Agricultural economy here refers to the interdependence and inter-complement of traditional agricultural production. Intercropping means millet, corn, wheat "and other crops were planted in the space between planting Chinese fir, and Camellia. As to the time-orders, i.e. what were planted in the very beginning, what were planted then, and what were planted in the last step, it is observed that the local people have much in common though some differ.The rise of Qiandongnan forest "agroforestry" is not accidental. its unique natural surrounding and social environment are parts of the factors. Its unique geological features, soil, climate and water conditions makes it the heaven for Chinese fir, pine and other species to grow. This area proved the most favorable natural environment for Chinese fir to be planted and to grow. As a result, the Chinese fir grown here has much better quality than those in any other provinces in China. The local inhabitants are Miao and Dong whose ancestors are believed to be Nanman people and Guyue people in ancient time. Nanman people and Guyue they invented and mastered sprout regeneration, coping technology of Chinese fir in Pre-Qin Dynasty. And this laid the technical foundation for the prosperity of Artificial forestation. According to Jiang Family Genealogy, Wendou village area were densely covered with boundless virgin forest by mid-Yuan Dynasty. And this huge virgin forest were not know to the outside world until 1506-1521 AD when Emperor Zheng De ruled China and ordered to build the royal palace. In Qing Dynasty, the royal family continued to purchase the wood in Qiandongnan. Thus, the official wood procurements boomed the timber trade. So much so that the virgin forest in Qiandongnan were destroyed completely. In order to meet the market demand from the royal family, people began the process of artificial forestation in large scale. In the reign of Emperor Qiandongnan,the local authorities came to realize the importance of artificial forestation. The local government encouraged the residents to plant trees in large scale. Because it takes a long time for trees to grow up. Conflicts between immigrants and the local inhabitants emerged, and needed to be solved out. After a while, people came to discover that intercropping enable to relieve, even to solve the problem of food supply, such as the shortage of grain and oil crop. This made it much easier for the people to survive before the trees grow tall and big enough to be cut down. In addition, people also found that intercropping could protect the baby tress to survive more easily and as well to preserve the environment. Thus intercropping became more widely accepted.The Literature data such as ancient contact texts and local records shows that people in Southeast Guizhou apply seedlings and sprout regeneration to planting economic trees. However, because Coniferous tree species including Chinese fir usually secrete an aromatic chemical, most species are afraid of this material while only a few broad leaved tree species can resist this chemical. So, when Chinese fir, Bionic effects such as allelopathy and antiinsects are produced. Though this method doest increase forest peasants’ income, but it is not the direct reason why people interbreed these plants. According to the local official documents, it often takes for local peasants to reach forest-establishment level. It is possible that some forest peasants may ignore the forest commercialization process, and spend more time in agriculture activities. In order to make forest peasants attaché enough importance to developing forests for the sake of protecting his own benefits, Planters usually have specific articles about years by which that forest peasants have to ensure the planted forest to grow mature enough be profitable. Thus additional terms relevant to that are commonly seen in the contracts. These contracts also tell readers that both planters and forest peasant attach great importance to Contiguous operation in order to achieve scale effect.In agroforestry, mountain owners run their forests by various forms and methods: mountain owners may rent mountain areas to forest peasants to run, they also my rent mountainous area to peasants to inter-plants crops and woods, etc. It is worth mentioning that most of influential scholars in academic circle think there are a big gap in social ladder, which means that the local inhabitants as forest peasant have much higher social position than immigrant forest peasants including foresters. But the ancient contacts texts and local official document clearly prove that there is no obvious gap in social position between them. Actually they share equal rights and equal social status in most cases. Compared to the role of mountain owners as renters, forest peasants not only are responsible for planting and managing the forests, but also are obliged to nurture the forests as well as fire safety and security work.In the mode of agroforestry, both owners of mountains and foresters can obtain income by trading mountains, woods, forested area and or simply remising forest rights. In most cases, the planters of forests and theirs workers share profit according contracts. As for the profit sharing ratio, the reign of Emperor Daoguang was the dividing line. Since the period of reign of Emperor Daoguang, 3:2 had became the most accepted sharing ratio while some planters and workers distribute profits in accordance with the amounts of their shares in the business. Certainly, they have other profits sharing approaches.更多还原