【作者】 张乐；

【导师】 梁宁建；

【作者基本信息】 华东师范大学 ， 基础心理学， 2008， 博士

【摘要】 态度是社会心理学中的重要概念之一,态度形成,即人们是如何对客体形成态度评价的,更是研究的一个重点。然而,相比较人们对态度的其他方面,比如态度定义、态度功能、态度测量、态度——行为关系等的关注来说,对态度形成则研究甚少,而早先关于态度形成的研究有很多是与说服领域中的态度改变混合在了一起进行分析。尽管如此,对态度形成的研究也还是有一定的理论积累,如遗传可能性、纯粹接触效应、条件反射作用、以及新近的价值-帐户模型等,就是其中比较有代表性的态度形成观点。评价性条件反射(Evaluative Conditioning,简称EC)是通过将一个中性的刺激(条件刺激,Conditioned Stimulus,简称CS)与一个已经可以激发出一定情绪性反应的刺激(无条件刺激,UnconditionedStimulus,简称US)连续配对,就可以使这一中性刺激获得与其相配对的刺激一样的情感性评价,即无条件刺激的评价性效价转移到了这个中性刺激上。已有大量研究证明,EC是对客体的情感性评价之态度形成的一个重要作用方式,此外,研究者对EC的一般通用性、功能性特征、内在机制解释等方面进行了探讨,而这对更好地理解态度形成的EC途径来说,很有助益。本研究在对态度形成特别是态度形成的EC作用进行系统理论梳理的基础上,借鉴并创新性地改进了Batty,Cave,&Pauli(2005)的视觉搜索任务EC范式,同时结合采用更有中国特色的中性态度刺激客体,对EC范式作用下的态度形成做了一系列的研究。研究一采用中性的大写字母F和T作为条件刺激CS、积极和消极图片作为无条件刺激US,通过视觉搜索任务这一掩蔽性的EC范式将CS和US进行配对呈现,同时采用外显7点评分量表、内隐联想测验(Implicit Association Test,简称为IAT)来对CS的条件化态度形成效果进行测量。在总体的外显测量上发现,只有当被试对CS-US的条件列联配对关系具有觉知的时候,才有CS的态度EC形成效果体现,而在IAT这一内隐测量结果上则仅有部分态度形成EC效应出现。研究二采用更为中性的古西夏文字作为CS,同时继续使用视觉搜索任务的掩蔽性EC范式,分别从外显7点评分量表、三种内隐测验(IAT、阈下情感性启动、阈上情感性启动)上对CS的条件化态度形成结果进行了测量。外显测量、IAT、以及阈上情感性启动正确反应时的结果都再次强有力地验证了研究一的结果发现,即,只有当被试具有对CS-US配对的条件列联觉知的时候,才会有CS的态度EC形成效果,但在阈下情感性启动任务的正确反应时中并未有相似的结果发现,这可能与此任务测量的本身特点有关。一般认为,人们倾向于对自我持积极的评价而对他人持相对消极的评价,在此观点基础上,研究三采用分别表自我和他人的中英文词语来替代原先的积极消极图片US,以期能将对自我以及他人的偏好和不偏好态度转移到中性的古西夏文刺激CS上去。然而,由于此研究中的被试基本都没有觉察到CS-US的条件列联配对关系,所以无论是在外显测量(7点量表)还是在内隐测量(阈上情感性启动任务)中,都没有发现态度形成的EC效果体现,而这也从反面再次验证了CS-US条件列联觉知对于EC之态度形成的必要性。注意分心的二级认知负荷任务经常被用来更好的探讨态度形成的内隐过程,研究四在前述研究一、二的基础上继续改进实验设计与相关实验材料,并额外添加了一个认知负荷组被试,来探查认知负荷所造成的注意资源占用是否对态度形成的EC过程造成了影响。结果在总体的外显测量、阈上情感性启动任务的反应错误率,以及无认知加工负荷组之阈上情感性启动任务的正确反应时这些数据上发现了态度形成的EC效果体现,当然,这些效应仍然是要基于被试对于CS-US条件列联的觉知。心境一致性假设(Bower,Gilligan,&Monteiro,1981)与心境指示心理背景的观点(Schwarz,1990)在研究情绪对态度形成的影响中比较重要,而后者对于探讨情绪影响EC这一联系性学习机制之上的态度形成来说作用更为重大。研究五先通过观赏影视片段实验性地诱发出被试的积极(愉快)和消极(悲伤)情绪,然后同样采用视觉搜索任务的EC之态度形成范式,来探究两种情绪是否对条件化态度的形成过程具有不同的影响,这里仅采用了阈上情感性启动一种方式来测量CS的条件化态度形成效果。由于本研究中发现CS-US条件列联觉知配对的被试人数过少所造成的被试分布不均以及其他难以控制的因素的存在,导致研究并没有在阈上情感性启动这一内隐测量任务上发现消极(悲伤)情绪组的被试比积极(愉快)情绪组的被试更能形成对于中性刺激的条件化态度结果,而这一假设正是来自于心境指示心理背景从而影响到联系性学习效果的观点推论。最后,研究也对态度形成的EC作用与意识觉知的关系、EC与内隐学习的关系、态度形成的EC范式之实际应用、IAT与情感性启动两种内隐测量方法的比较、以及态度形成的内隐机制探讨等方面做了概括性的讨论。总体上说,本系列研究在重点探查CS-US条件列联觉知与EC之态度形成关系的同时,采用不同的实验中性刺激以及不同的态度外显和内隐测量方法,一再地证明了态度形成的EC效果需要CS-US条件列联觉知参与的观点,同时研究也附着以探查了注意分心认知加工负荷、情绪等调节因素对于态度之EC形成的影响,穿插着也将态度形成的EC范式应用到了源于自我的偏好态度形成中去。更多还原

【Abstract】 Attitude research is very important for social psychology, and attitude formation, that is, how people form their evaluation to an attitude object, is a more important research field in social psychology. While a vast amount of empirical work and a high degree of theoretical elaboration have been devoted to the topic of attitude concept, attitude functions, attitude measurement, and attitude-behavior relationship, etc, social psychology is comparatively silent on the question of where likes and dislikes of objects, individuals, and events initially come from. In the past the researchers have also put attitude formation and attitude change together to understand. Although people haven’t paid much attention to the topic of attitude formation, there have been still some result discoveries about it. The heritability of attitude, mere exposure effect, conditioning, and value-account model, are all representative viewpoints about attitude formation and evaluative conditioning (EC) is more important of them. EC is often described as the learning of likes and dislikes, that is, as the acquisition of preferences. More specifically, EC refers to the transfer of affect from a positive or negative unconditioned stimulus (US) to a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) as the result of a pairing procedure. Because attitude formation processes mostly refer to the affective or cognitive meaning attitudinal objects acquire in the context of pleasant or unpleasant experiences, EC paradigm is very important for addressing this kind of attitude formation processes. Since the first demonstration of EC, the researchers have paid much more attention to the generality, the functional characteristics, and the explanation models of EC, and all these work has also do much good to better understand the EC paradigm of attitude formation.The aim of the present research is to examine the attitude formation processes through EC paradigm on the basis of reviewing the past literatures about EC research. We will use the letter F, the letter T and a kind of old Chinese character, xixia character, as our experimental stimuli (CS materials) and will revise Batty et al.’s visual search task(Batty, Cave, & Pauli, 2005) as our particular EC experimental paradigm to do our work.In experiment 1, we use the letter F and the letter T as CSs, positive picture and negative picture as USs, also we use an explicit 7-point scale and Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure the conditioned attitude effects. In the total explicit measurement data, we find that only when the participants have the CS-US contingency awareness, they will form the conditioned attitude evaluation about CSs, but in the IAT data, just some sporadic results as this have been found.In experiment 2, we use more neutral CSs, xixia characters, and use four methods (7-point scale, IAT, subliminal affective priming, supraliminal affective priming) to measure CSs’ conditioned attitudes. The evaluation results in explicit measurement (7-point scale), and the correct reaction time results in implicit measurements (IAT and supraliminal affective priming task) approve the same discovery as in experiment 1, that is, only when the participants have the CS-US contingency awareness, they will form the conditioned attitudes. In the correct reaction time results of subliminal affective priming, we didn’t find this similar effect, maybe this is related to the procedure characteristics of this specific task.People always have positive evaluations to themselves, and at the same time have negative evaluations to others. Based on this viewpoint, in experiment 3 we use Chinese and English words referring to selves vs. others as USs, and hope to find that the CSs pairing with selves words will be liked, and the CSs pairing with others words will be disliked. However, because most of the participants in experiment 3 haven’t CS-US contingency awareness, in 7-point scale and supraliminal affective priming data, we haven’t found conditioned attitudes effect at all. This zero results once again approve the discovery of experiment 1 from the contrary side.The researchers often use attention demanding secondary task to explore the implicit processes of attitude formation. Experiment 4 continues to ameliorate the experimental materials and adds a secondary task for some participants during their EC visual search tasks to look at the role of attention in attitude formation of EC paradigm. We find the conditioned attitudes effect as former in the total explicit measurement, the percent results of false reaction about supraliminal affective priming, and the correct reaction time results about supraliminal affective priming in the no-secondary-task participants.Mood and emotion do influence people’s attitude evaluation and cognitive judgment. The mood-congruency hypothesis (Bower, Gilligan, & Monteiro, 1981) and the idea about mood states informing the organism about the current psychological situation (Schwarz, 1990) are two important viewpoints that address the question of how mood and emotion influence attitude formation, and the latter also weighs heavily for researching the role of them in attitude formation through EC paradigm. Experiment 5 induces the participants’ positive (happy) and negative (sad) mood through letting them view movie segments, and in this experiment, only supraliminal affective priming task is used to measure the conditioned attitudes. Because the unbalanced participants groups and some other factors hard to control, experiment 5 hasn’t found the results compatible with the hypothesis deriving from aforementioned Schwarz (1990)’s viewpoint, that is, sad mood rather than happy mood will enhance the acquisition of conditioned attitudes in the supraliminal affective priming task.In the last, we discuss some related topics about the relationship between EC and awareness, the relationship between EC and implicit learning, the EC’s application in social life, the contrast between IAT and affective priming, and the implicit mechanisms about attitude formation.As a whole, in this research we use different experimental neutral stimuli and various attitude measurements to mainly explore whether the EC paradigm of attitude formation depends on CS-US contingency awareness. We also explore the role of attention and mood/emotion in the conditioned attitude formation process, and apply EC paradigm in preference formation deriving from positive evaluation to selves.更多还原