礼教形成中的汉代妇女生活

【作者】 李彤；

【导师】 何俊；

【作者基本信息】 浙江大学 ， 中国古典文献学， 2005， 博士

【摘要】 秦灭六国之后,秦始皇实施了包括“行同伦”在内的一系列方针政策,以实现由多元向统一的转变。汉代建国之初,也同样面临伦理道德重建的问题。萌芽于周代的礼教经汉儒整合和发展,服务于现实,《白虎通》的颁行标志着礼教的正式形成。在此过程中,意识形态里不断加强对于妇女的约束:男尊女卑的传统观念受到强调;夫妻关系被纳入“三纲”,并定格为“夫为妻纲”;男子处分妻子的七项条款被首次提出;贞节观念渐趋成熟;“三从”、“四德”得到重申和详细阐释。此外,还出现两部深远影响的女教著述——《列女传》和《女诫》。 在礼教形成的时期,妇女的生活呈现出丰富性和复杂性,有受礼教影响的一面,也有与主流意识形态相背离的一面。虽然礼教对性别角色进行严格划分,规定女性的职责是“主内”。但汉代妇女并未完全被家务劳动所禁锢,她们中的一些人从事的工作涉及经济、政治、文化教育、军事等诸多领域。在生育行为上,汉代民间盛行重男轻女之风,存在弃杀女婴的陋习。女子教育在家中进行,学习的主要内容是妇礼和为妇之道。民间虽然存在自由恋爱之风,但强调父母之命、媒妁之言的聘娶婚是汉代婚姻形态的主流。在夫妻关系中,妇女处于不利地位,男子能以“七出”为由休妻,但妇女也有一定的婚姻自主权,礼教中敬妻等内容在士阶层中亦有所体现。虽然汉代大力提倡贞节观念,但改嫁和再嫁的现象广泛存在。虽然社会上存在“男女有别”的正统观念,但女性并未藏于深闺之中,她们可以外出参加活动,在家也可以独自会见客人,与异性的交往比较自然洒脱。她们有自己的节日和娱乐活动,还可以参与一些一般属于男子的游戏。汉代在妇女中大力推行教化和严惩违反伦常的妇女犯罪,反过来恰好说明礼教尚未深入广大妇女的心中。相比之下,在礼教发展时期的唐代,礼教所波及的范围和影响的程度都超越汉代。与汉代同时期的古罗马妇女同样受制于父权和夫权,但由于所受的约束相对较少,生活得更自由自在。在汉代历史上,出现过临朝称制的太后、和亲的汉家女子、博学高才的知识女性以及敢于救困、复仇和起义的女中豪杰,她们突破性别角色的局限,展示了不逊于男子的才能、智慧和胆量。 汉代在移风易俗方面取得一定的成效。但由于国土辽阔,各地存在着受礼教影响程度的差异,礼教由中心地带向周边地区辐射的过程中,也产生时间上的先后之别。西汉时期,社会风气较为开放,受锐意进取的时代精神感染,妇女在政治、外交、经济等领域都较活跃。随着父权和夫权的巩固,妇女尤其是士阶层家中的妇女行为逐渐受到规范。而到了东汉末年,随着个性解放思潮的兴起,礼教的约束力减弱。由于妇女所处阶层不同,受礼教的影响程度也不同。即使同处一个阶层,因为性格、经历、思想认识等的不同,对礼教的认同与接受程度也存在差异。由于汉代处于礼教的形成时期,社会规范还很疏阔,礼教对社会生活产生影响也存在一个时间差。更多还原

【Abstract】 Having had wiped out six states, The First Emperor of Qin implemented a whole set of policies including the standardization of actions in order to transform diversify into unity. A problem of reconstruction of moral principles also lay ahead of Han Dynasty which had been just founded. The Confucian scholars integrated and expanded the ethical code of Zhou Dynasty to serve reality. The publication of Bai Hu Tong (Comprehensive Discussions in the White Tiger Hall) marked that the Confucian ethical code had shaped up. During this period, binding force to the women was strengthened in the realm of ideology. The emphasis was placed on the traditional idea of which men were respectable and women were lowly. The relationships between husband and wife were brought into the three guides and were stipulated that husband guide wife. The seven reasons of divorce of men were put forward for the first time. The idea of chastity became ripe. The three obediences and four virtues were reaffirmed and interpreted fully. Two influential textbooks for women arose.The lives of women of Han Dynasty were manifold and complicated on which the Confucian ethical code had both influential and uninfluential aspects. The Confucian ethical code strictly distinguished between the two roles of man and woman and provided that woman’s duty was to manage household affaires, but the women of Han Dynasty weren’t limited by this code. Some of them went out of family and were engaged in many realms, such as economy, politics, culture and education, military and so on. The common people liked to give birth to a boy. They sometimes abandoned or killed a girl after she was born. Girls were educated within the family .The main content of learning included the etiquette for women and how to be a good wife. Although there was the general mood of free love among the people, the proper way of contracting a marriage was the command of parents and the good offices of a go-between. The content of the Confucian ethical code such as seven reasons of divorce of husband and to respect wife was reflected in the actual life. Though the idea of chastity had been promoted, there was the general mood of divorce and remarriage among the women. Though there was the orthodox idea of distinction of the sexes, women didn’t hide themselves at home. They would go out of the door and take part in some activities. To receive a male guest alone was also allowed. In a word, they would associate with men freely and easily. They had festivals and activities of their own and would involve in some activities of men. To enlighten women by education and to pay severe penalties to female crimes against feudal order of seniority in human relationships shows the Confucian ethical code didn’t strike root in the hearts of the women. By comparison, the sphere and degree of influence of the Confucian ethical code of Tang Dynasty surpassed Han Dynasty. The women of Roma were also controlled by patriarchy and authority of the husband at the same time, but they were kept with in the fewer bounds, thus their lives were more leisurely and carefree. There were some women appeared in the history of Han Dynasty who broke through the limit of sexes and showed their ability, wisdom and courage which were not inferior to the men. They were emperors’ mothers who acted as regent, princesses who were married to the minoritynationality kings, female intellectuals who were learned and versatile and heroines who dared to save their parents when they were in trouble, avenge and revolt.The government of Han Dynasty achieved a curtain effect on changing prevailing habits and customs, but there were regional differences on the degree and time of influence of the Confucian ethical code. The women of West-Han Dynasty were more active because of the open atmosphere and the influence of the enterprising spirit of the times. The women, especially who lived in the family of intellectual, were kept within the bounds of the Confucian ethical code progressively along with the consolidation of patriarchy and authority of the husband. The influence of the Confucian ethical code began to reduce when the ideological trend of the emancipation of individuality rose at the end of Han Dynasty. There were differences between different ranks of women to accept influence of the Confucian ethical code. Women of same rank would differ from each other owing to the different level of understanding and degree of acceptation. Because Han Dynasty was at the time of when the Confucian ethical code just shaped up, the social regulation was still inaccurate and it couldn’t produce the desired result soon.更多还原